从语篇功能角度论雅思阅读技巧
2009-01-05来源:和谐英语
三.语篇功能与雅思阅读答题思路
1.主位推进及信息结构与段落主旨题和摘要题的答题策略
单个句子都有自己相对独立的主位结构。但是语篇中的主述位并不是孤立出现的,前后句子的主位和主位、述位和述位、主位和述位之间始终存在某种有机的联系和变化,这种联系和变化就叫推进(progression)。随着各句主位的向前推进,整个语篇逐步展开,直至形成一个能表达某一完整意义的整体(朱永生,2001)。对于语篇的主位推进模式,国内外语言学家提出了很多不同的分类。其中主要有五种模式:
(1)主位同一型(亦称平衡型):主位(部分)相同,述位不同
T1+R1→T2(=T1)+R2→T3(=T1)+R3
(2)述位同一型(亦称集中型):主位不同,述位(部分)相同
T1+R1→T2+R2(=R1)→T3+R3(=R1)
(3)延续型:前句的述位或述位的一部分是后一句的主位
T1+R1→T2(=R1)+R2→T3(=R2)+R3
(4)交叉型:前句的主位是后一句的述位
T1+R1→T2+R2(=T1)→T3+R3(=T2)
(5)派生型:后几个小句的主位或述位是从前一句的主位或述位派生出来的
T1+R1→T2(=T1*/R1*)+R2(=T1*/R1*)
大多数语篇的主位推进都比较复杂,往往是几种模式的结合使用(朱永生,2001)。研究主位推进的意义在于:通过切分和分析主述位结构及其信息链,理清作者的思路和主题的展开形式,较为准确地把握语篇的主旨。
雅思阅读涉及语篇主旨的主要题型是List of Headings(选配段落标题),考查对文章中各段中心思想的把握。答题可利用最有可能是主题句的首次尾中句分别与标题选项逐一对应,选配最佳答案。而在段落没有主题句的情况下,则可以通过分析语篇的主位推进模式,了解其信息结构和分布动态,把握作者的思路流程或序列,并结合该题型的命题特点,重点关注主、述位信息链条上的逻辑关系切换、信息衔接上的重复(或强调)等环节,从而准确地解读作者在语篇中要表达的主要意思。而对于Summary(摘要题),题干语篇的主位推进模式也会为答案的语意预判提供一定的线索。已有学者对中外学术期刊文章摘要的主位推进模式做过分析统计,结果是派生型居多。而笔者对雅思摘要题题干的分析统计表明,其主位推进模式以延续型、集中型和平衡型为主。
例1.剑桥5/Test3/Reading Passage2/Q15 Paragraph D (List of Headings)
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B and D-F from the list of headings.
Paragraph D(共4个句子:S1-S4)
(S1)Once north of Cairo,[复项主位T1]‖most of the Nile water is diverted into more than 10,000 kilometers of irrigation canals and only a small proportion reaches the sea directly through the rivers in the delta[述位R1].(S2)The water in the irrigation canals[单项主位T2(=R1)]‖is still or very slow-moving and thus cannot carry sediment, Stanley explains[述位R2].(S3)The sediment[单项主位T3(=R2)]‖sinks to the bottom of the canals and then is added to fields by farmers or pumped with the water into the four large freshwater lagoons that are located near the outer edges of the delta[述位R3].(S4)So very little of it[复项主位T4(=T3)]‖actually reaches the coastline to replace what is being washed away by the Mediterranean currents[述位R4].
主位推进模式分析:
T1+R1→T2(=R1)+R2‖[延续型]→T3(=R2)+R3‖[延续型]→T4(=T3)+R4‖[平衡型]
第一句的述位(water is diverted into irrigation canals)是第二句的主位(water in the irrigation canals),第二句的述位(cannot carry sediment)是第三句的主位(The sediment),第四句的主位(very little of it)和第三句的主位相同。这种延续型和平衡型主位推进模式构建了该语篇的语意框架,表明了语篇中的信息流程和所要传递的信息焦点,即关于irrigation canals和sediment的相互关系。因此可以判定标题选项“Effects of irrigation on sedimentation”为正确答案。
例2.剑桥4/Test4/Reading Passage3/Q31 Section E (List of Headings)
Choose the correct heading for sections A and C-E from the list of headings.
Section E(共5个句子:S1-S5)
(S1)Just as the time when it became obvious that health-care resources could not possibly meet the demands being made upon them,[句项主位T1]‖people were demanding that their fundamental right to health-care be satisfied by the state[述位R1].(S2)The second set of more specific changes that have led to the present concern about the distribution of health-care resources[句项主位T2(=T1*)]‖stems from the dramatic rise in health costs in most OECD countries, accompanied by large-scale demographic and social changes which have meant, to take one example, that elderly people are now major (and relatively very expensive) consumers of health-care resources[述位R2].(S3)Thus in OECD countries as a whole,[复项主位T3]‖health costs increased from 3.8% of GDP in 1960 to 7% of GDP in 1980, and it has been predicted that the proportion of health costs to GDP will continue to increase.(In theUSthe current figure is about 12% of GDP, and inAustraliaabout 7.8% of GDP.)[述位R3(=R2)]
(S4)As a consequence, during the 1980s[复项主位T4]‖a kind of doomsday scenario (analogous to similar doomsday extrapolations about energy needs and fossil fuels or about population increases) was projected by health administrators, economists and politicians[述位R4(=R2*)].(S5)In this scenario,[单项主位T5(=R4)]‖ever-rising health costs were matched against static or declining resources[述位R5(=R3*)].
(1)主位推进模式分析:
T1+R1→T2(=T1*)+R2‖[派生型]→T3+R3(=R2)‖[集中型]→T4+R4(=R2*)‖[派生型]
→T5(=R4)+R5(=R3*)‖[延续型](各句主位相加可知语篇大致内容是关于OECD countries和health-care resources)
(2)信息衔接上的重复(或强调):S2→S3的主位推进是集中型,述位(R2/R3)的一部分相同,主要是描述了health costs change, demographic and social changes,特别重复强调了health costs change。
(3)逻辑关系:S3→S4信息链接存在明显的因果逻辑关系(as a consequence),而S4→S5的主位推进是延续型,表明意义上的延续。因此断定S4/S5是结果,S2/S3是其成因,语篇的中心内容是S2/S3所重点描述的health costs change及其所造成的结果。所以标题选项“The impact of recent change”为正确答案。
本题的答题方法正是通过对语篇句子进行主述位实义切分,以及主位推进模式的分析,把握语篇的信息链条,并通过信息流程中的重复(强调)和逻辑关系的分析,确定了作者要表达的中心意思。
例3.剑桥6/Test4/Reading Passage2/Q14-18 (Summary)
Complete the summary using the list of words, A-J, below.
The Nicaraguan National Literacy Crusade aimed to teach large numbers of illiterate (14)men and womento read and write. Public health experts have known for many years that there is a connection between child health and (15) .
从信息结构上看,Q15所在的句子与前一个句子没有任何信息上的衔接,两个句子包含的全部都是新信息,其各自主位和述位失去联系,彼此孤立,没有主位推进,因此也就构建不成语篇。根据这一分析,我们可以判定Q15所填信息应该是前一句中的旧信息(即和读写能力有关的内容),以形成新旧信息的交织衔接,创造语篇的构成机制。结合以上分析和文章的大标题(Do literate women make better mothers?),可以确定答案是F. maternal literacy。
2.衔接系统和定位的结构性线索
学术类雅思阅读文章的特征之一是结构严谨,逻辑性强,论述层次清晰,其语篇的连贯多由指称、替代、省略、连接、词汇衔接等显性衔接机制来完成。雅思阅读命题设计的一个重要特点是:题干如果包含语篇(如摘要题)或图表,则其语篇的衔接和图表结构一般都会在原文中有对应的表现形式。这就使得题干语句的连接、词汇衔接和图表逻辑结构成为定位过程中不可忽视的线索,它可以帮助我们迅速确定答案在原文中的大致位置。(关于衔接系统对雅思阅读答题的指导意义,还可参阅本文作者《话语分析在雅思阅读中的功能》一文)
例1.剑桥6/Test3/Reading Passage3/Q38-40 (Flow-chart)
原文:
Cells use the glucose from food to generate ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the molecule that powers many activities in the body. By limiting food intake, caloric restriction minimizes the amount of glucose entering cells and decreases ATP generation. When 2DG is administered to animals that eat normally, glucose reaches cells in abundance but the drug prevents most of it from being processed and thus reduces ATP synthesis. Researchers have proposed severalexplanationsfor why interruption of glucose processing and ATP production might retard aging.Onepossibility relates to the ATP-making machinery’semission of free radicals, which are thought to contribute to aging and to such age-related diseases as cancer by damaging cells. Reduced operation of the machinery should limit their production and thereby constrain the damage.Anotherhypothesis suggests that decreased processing of glucose could indicate to cells that food is scarce (even if it isn’t) and induce them to shift into an anti-aging mode thatemphasizes preservationof the organism over such ‘luxuries’ as growth and reproduction.
Complete the flow-chart below.
How a caloric-restriction mimetic works
CR mimetic→less 38 is processed→production of ATP is decreased→Theory 1: cells less damaged by disease because fewer 39 are emitted Theory 2: cells focus on 40 because food is in short supply
在这一流程图的题目中,Q39和Q40处在一个并列的结构中,即Theory 1 / Theory 2。这一并列结构预示答案在原文中很可能位于相应的并列结构上。因此定位时可以首先根据这一线索,迅速扫描文章的连接形式。在原文中解释流程图的标题(即how所引导的信息),应该是explanations这个词后面的内容,在这个信息区域中存在一个明显的并列的连接形式,即“One …… Another ……”,这一并列结构应是Q39/Q40答案大致所在的位置,再根据Q39空格后的are emitted和Q40空格前的focus on,确定答案分别为free radicals和preservation。
四.结语
语篇分析的方法层出不穷,从主位结构、信息结构和衔接系统来进行阅读理解和语篇分析,能帮助我们快捷而准确的把握作者的思路流程,明确语篇的信息方向、信息框架和信息中心。要提高雅思阅读理解的答题能力,我们应在平时的精读练习中注重语篇层面上的分析,加深对英文的表达模式和文章逻辑连贯性的理解,同时还要针对不同题型的命题特点,善于利用原文和题干的信息流程和信息结构来有效提高解读和定位的效率。
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